Barb and Mike Haynes meet with Maria Garcia,
Adult Services Worker. They indicate that they feel
a moral obligation to continue caring for Ruth in
their home, because Ruth spent most of her adult
years caring for Mike and his brother and sister
when they were children. Barb and Mike also indi-
cate that they have a 2-year-old child, Erin, at home.
This is a second marriage for both Barb and Mike,
and they are paying for Mike’s son, Brian, to attend
the state university. With such expenses, both believe
they need to continue to work. Mike’s oldest sister,
Mary Kruger, is a single parent who has two children
in high school. Mary Kruger has a visual disability
but has been able to be the primary caregiver for
Ruth and Erin during the daylight hours when Mike
andBarb are at work. Recently,Mary informedMike
and Barb that caring for Ruth is becoming too diffi-
cult and that some kind of alternative care is needed.
Ms. Garcia suggests that adult day care for Ruthmay
be a useful resource.
Mike adds that it is emotionally devastating to see
his mother slowly deteriorate. He indicates he is in a
double bind; he feels an obligation to care for his
mother, but doing so is causing major disruptions in
his family life. The stress has resulted in marital dis-
cord with Barb, and he adds that both he and Barb
have become increasingly short in temper and
patience with Erin.
At this point, Ms. Garcia suggests it may be help-
ful to graphically diagram their present dilemma.
Together, the Hayneses and Ms. Garcia draw the
ecomap shown in Figure 12.4. While drawing the
map, Mike inquires whether Ruth’s medical condi-
tion might soon stabilize. Ms. Garcia indicates that
Ruth may occasionally appear to stabilize, but the
long-term prognosis is gradual deterioration in men-
tal functioning and in physical capabilities. The eco-
map helps Mike and Barb see that even though they
are working full-time during the day and spending
the remainder of their waking hours caring for
Erin and Ruth, they are becoming too emotionally
and physically exhausted to continue doing so.
During the past three years, they have ceased social-
izing with friends. Now they seldom have any time to
spend even with Brian. Feeling helpless and hopeless,
they inquire if some other care arrangement is avail-
able besides a nursing home. They indicate that Ruth
has said on numerous occasions, “I’d rather die now
than be placed in a nursing home.” Ms. Garcia tells
them of some high-quality adult group homes in the
area and gives them the addresses.
After visiting a few of the care facilities, Barb and
Mike ask Ruth to stay for a few days at one they
particularly like. At first Ruth is opposed to going
for a “visit.” But after being there a few days, she
adjusts fairly well and soon concludes (erroneously,
but no one objects) that it is a home she bought and
that the people on the staff are her “domestic
employees.” Ruth’s adjustment eases the guilt that
Barb and Mike feel in placing Ruth in a care facility,
and this results in substantial improvements in their
marital relationship and in their interactions with
Erin, Brian, and their friends.
A major value of an ecomap is that it facilitates
both the worker’s and the client’s view of the client’s
family from a systems and an ecological perspective.
Sometimes, as happened in the case of the Hayneses,
the drawing of the ecomap helps clients and practi-
tioners gain greater insight into the social dynamics
of a problematic situation.
Family System Assessment:
The Genogram
A genogram is a graphic way of investigating the
origins of a client’s problem by diagramming the
family over at least three generations. The client
and the worker usually construct the family geno-
gram jointly. The genogram is essentially a family
tree. Murray Bowen is the primary developer of
this technique (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). The genogram
is a useful tool for the worker and family members
to examine problematic emotional and behavioral
patterns in an intergenerational context. Emotional
and behavioral patterns in families tend to repeat
themselves; what happens in one generation will of-
ten occur in the next. Genograms help family mem-
bers to identify and understand family relationship
patterns.
Figure 12.5 shows some of the commonly used
symbols. Together, the symbols provide a visual re-
presentation of at least three generations of a family,
including names, ages, genders, marital status, sibling
positions, and so on. When relevant, additional items
of information may be included, such as emotional
difficulties, behavioral problems, religious affilia-
tion, ethnic origins, geographic locations, occupations,
socioeconomic status, and significant life events.
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Daryl
Highlight
The following case example illustrates the use of a
genogram.
Chris Witt makes an appointment with Kyle
Nolan, a social worker in private practice. Chris is
distraught. He indicates that his wife, Karen, and
two children are currently at Sister House, a shelter
for battered women. Chris states he and his wife had
a “scuffle” two days ago, and she bruised her face.
Yesterday, when he was at work, she left home with
the children and went to Sister House. He adds that
she has contacted an attorney and is now seeking a
divorce.
Mr. Nolan inquires as to the specifics of the
“scuffle.” Chris says he came home after having a
few beers. His dinner was cold, and he “got on”
Karen for not cleaning up the house. He adds that
Karen then started mouthing off, and he slapped her
to shut her up. Mr. Nolan inquires whether such
Deceased husband’s
pension plan
(sufficient for Ruth’s
financial needs)
Ruth’s friends
(no longer
contact Ruth)
Richard—Ruth’s
other son
(no longer has
contact with
Ruth)
Metro Transit
(Mike has been
a bus driver for
13 years)
Porta Bella
Restaurant
(Barb has been
a waitress for
9 years)
Dean Medical
Clinic
(treats Ruth for
Alzheimer’s disease)
State
university
(Brian is majoring
in computer science
and living in
a residence
hall)
Mary—
Mike’s sister
(primary caregiver
during the
day for Erin
and Ruth) Friends
(Barb and Mike
have mutual friends,
but now are usually
too busy to
socialize with
them)
Erin
2
Barb
38
Jim
44
Mike
42
Ruth
62
Brian
19
Divorced Divorced
Married
4 years
M
ar
y
is
e
xh
au
st
ed
in
p
ro
vi
di
ng
c
ar
e
Liz
37
Pat
44
Barb’s
parents
(retired and
moved to Florida;
Barb seldom sees
them)
St. James Church
(Barb attends but
Mike does not)
FIGURE 12.4 Sample Ecomap: Barb and Mike Haynes
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rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or
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incidents had occurred in the past. Chris indicates,
“A few times,” and adds that getting physical with
Karen is the only way for him to “keep her in line.”
He says he works all day long in his small business
as a concrete contractor, while his wife sits at home
watching soap operas. He feels she is not doing
her fair share and the house usually looks like a
disaster.
Mr. Nolan asks Chris if he feels that getting phys-
ical with his wife is justifiable. He responds, “Sure,”
and adds that his dad frequently told him, “Spare
the rod, and spoil both the wife and the kids.”
Mr. Nolan asks Chris if his dad was abusive to
him when he was a child. Chris indicates that he
was and adds that to this day he detests his dad for
abusing him and his mother.
Mr. Nolan then suggests that together they draw a
family tree, focusing on three areas: episodes of heavy
drinking, episodes of physical abuse, and traditional
versus modern gender stereotypes. Mr. Nolan ex-
plains that a traditional gender stereotype includes
the husband as the primary decision maker, the wife
as submissive to him, and the wife as primarily re-
sponsible for domestic tasks. The modern gender ste-
reotype involves an egalitarian relationship between
husband and wife. After an initial reluctance (Chris
expresses confusion as to how such a tree would help
get his wife back), Chris agrees. The resulting geno-
gram is presented in Figure 12.6.
The genogram helps Chris to see that he and his
wife are products of family systems that have strik-
ingly different values and customs. In his family, the
males tend to drink heavily, have a traditional view
of marriage, and tend to use physical force in inter-
actions with their spouses and children. Upon ques-
tioning, Chris mentions that he has at times struck
his own children. Mr. Nolan asks Chris how he feels
about repeating the same patterns of abuse with his
wife and children that he despised his father for
using. Tears come to his eyes, and he says one word,
“Guilty.”
Mr. Nolan and Chris discuss what Chris might do
to change his family interactions and how he might
best approach his wife to request that she and the
children return. Chris agrees to attend AA (Alco-
holics Anonymous) meetings and a therapy group
for batterers. After a month of attending these meet-
ings, Chris contacts his wife and asks her to return.
Karen agrees to return if Chris stops drinking (most
of the abuse occurred when he was intoxicated) and
if he agrees to continue to attend group therapy and
AA meetings. Chris readily agrees. Karen’s parents
express their disapproval of her returning.
For the first few months, Chris Witt is on his best
behavior, and there is considerable harmony in the
21 21-year-old male
Deceased male (died at age 67)
Deceased female (died at
age 32)
33-year-old identified female
client
27-year-old identified male
client
23-year-old female
Couple separated (/) in 1981,
divorced (//) in 1983
Unmarried couple living
together since 1982, with a
4-year-old son
Married couple with an
adopted daughter
Married couple (married
in 1982)
Married couple with two
children: an 8-year-old daughter
and a 3-year-old son
Married couple, wife pregnant
m 82
8 3
33
67
23
82
4
s 81; d 83
32
27
FIGURE 12.5 Commonly Used Genogram Symbols
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copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic
rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or
eChapter(s).
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reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if
subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Witt family. Then one day Chris has to fire one of
his employees. Feeling bad, he stops afterward at a
tavern and drinks until he is intoxicated. When he
finally arrives home, he starts to verbally and physi-
cally abuse Karen and the children. This is the final
straw for Karen. She takes the children to her par-
ents’ house, where they stay for several days until
they are able to find and move into an apartment.
She also files for divorce and follows through in
obtaining one.
In many ways, this is not a success case (in reality,
many cases are not). The genogram, however, was
useful in helping Chris realize that he had acquired,
and was acting out, certain dysfunctional family pat-
terns. Unfortunately, he was not yet fully ready to
make lasting changes. Perhaps sometime in the fu-
ture he will be more committed to making changes.
At the present time, he has returned to drinking
heavily.
The ecomap and the genogram have a number of
similarities. With both techniques, users gain insight
into family dynamics. Some of the symbols used in
the two approaches are identical. There are also dif-
ferences. The ecomap focuses attention on a family’s
interactions with groups, resources, organizations,
associations, other families, and other individuals.
52
47 57 59
Loren Rebecca
30 26
58
m?
54 55
Richard Marge Mildred
77
Emma LeRoy
Traditional view
of marriage;
used to drink
heavily
Traditional
view of
marriage
Nondrinker;
modern view of
marriage
Social drinker;
modern view of
marriage
Episodes of
heavy drinking;
modern view of
marriage
Episodes of
heavy drinking;
incidents of spouse
abuse; traditional
view of
marriage
2832 25
ChrisDan
31
Linda
13
Janet
5
m 89
m ?m 61
s 90, d 91
Loretta
3
Marvin
Gail Bill Karen
FIGURE 12.6 Sample Genogram: The Chris and Karen Witt Family
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rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or
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The genogram focuses attention on intergenerational
family patterns, particularly those that are problem-
atic or dysfunctional.
Family Problems and Social Work Roles
Thorman (1982) points out that although each fam-
ily is unique, conflicts and problems within families
tend to cluster in four major categories: (1) marital
problems between the husband and wife; (2) difficul-
ties between parents and children; (3) personal prob-
lems of individual family members; and (4) stresses
imposed on the family by the external environment.
Family problems do not necessarily fall neatly
into one or another of these categories. Frequently,
families experience more than one category of prob-
lems. Nor are these problem categories mutually
exclusive. Many times one problem will be closely
related to another. Consider, for instance, the wife
and mother of a family who is a department store
manager and the primary breadwinner for her fam-
ily. The store at which she has been working for the
past 11 years suddenly goes out of business. Despite
massive efforts, she is unable to find another job
with similar responsibilities and salary. This can be
considered a family problem caused by stresses in the
environment. However, this is also a personal prob-
lem for the wife andmother. Her sense of self-worth is
seriously diminished by her job loss and inability to
find another position. She becomes cranky, short-
tempered, and difficult to live with. The environmen-
tal stress she is experiencing causes her to have diffi-
culties relating to both her children and spouse. The
entire family system becomes disturbed.
A family therapy perspective sees any problem
within the family as a family group problem, not
as a problem on the part of any one individual mem-
ber (Okun & Rappaport, 1980). Social workers,
therefore, need to assess the many dimensions of
the problem and the effects on all family members.
T
he first category of problems typically experi-
enced by families ismarital problems between the hus-
band and wife. Although problems between spouses
affect all family members, intervention may target a
subsystem of the family—in this case, the marital sub-
system. In other words, a social worker may work
with the couple alone instead of the entire family to
solve a specific problem. When the marital pair gets
along better, the entire family will be positively
affected. A marital problem case example follows.
Gianna and Mark Di Franco were married in
1998. Both had been previously divorced. Gianna
had two children from a prior marriage, and Mark
had four. Gianna was a financial planner who owned
her own company. Mark was vice president of a
much larger company. Both earned about the same
amount. On the night before they were married,
Mark presented Gianna with a prenuptial agreement.
It stated that the assets each brought into the mar-
riage would be kept separate, and would be the prop-
erty of the person bringing it into the marriage if a
divorce occurred. The agreement also stated that
each spouse would pay an equal share of the family
expenses. Mark said he would not marry Gianna un-
less she signed the agreement. Gianna did not want to
call off the wedding, so she signed the agreement.
After three years of marriage, Gianna had twoma-
jor concerns. First, when Mark became angry with
her, he would refuse to talk to her—often for as long
as two weeks. Gianna often did not know “what she
did wrong.” Mark, after pouting for a while, would
eventually start talking again. When she asked why
he’d stopped communicating, he’d always respond,
“If you can’t figure it out, I’m not going to tell you.”
Gianna’s second concern was financial. Mark be-
came president of his company and received a big in-
crease in salary. Gianna, on the other hand, saw her
earnings sliced nearly in half as the stockmarket drop
in the early 2000s resulted in much less business for
her company. She asked Mark several times to pay
more of the family expenses. He always pulled out
the prenuptial agreement and said he wanted to pay
his extra money into trust funds for his four children.
The financial situation and the communication
problem became such major issues for Gianna that
she went to see a family social worker. The social
worker indicated that progress on these issues could
only be made if Mark came in for joint counseling.
Mark at first refused to go. Gianna had to give him
an ultimatum: “Either go with me for counseling, or
I’m filing for divorce.”
Mark relented and went for counseling with
Gianna. At first, he refused to change the prenuptial
agreement, but eventually he realized that if he didn’t
pay more of the household expenses, and if he didn’t
start communicating with Gianna about his con-
cerns, she was going to file for divorce. He thus
agreed to pay more of the family expenses. However,
the communication issue was more of a hurdle for
him. He was raised in a family in which he learned
the pattern of not communicating from his father,
who also would stop speaking for a week or two to
his wife when he was angry with her. Gianna adopted
Sociological Aspects of Young and Middle Adulthood 563
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rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or
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the strategy of making a counseling appointment for
Mark and her whenever Mark stopped talking to her
for a day or two.
Richard B. Stuart (1983) developed a Couple’s
Pre-Counseling Inventory, which is used to assess a
couple’s problems. Each member of the couple is
asked to fill out the questionnaire separately. Later,
answers can be shared during counseling, and mis-
conceptions each has about how the other person
feels can be clarified. Areas that are evaluated include
happiness with the relationship; caring behaviors
liked, and perceptions of caring behaviors liked, by
the partner; communication; how conflict is man-
aged; how moods and other aspects of personal life
are managed; sexual interaction; how children are
managed; willingness to make changes; marital his-
tory; and specific goals each person wants to pursue.
Such an instrument provides an excellent mecha-
nism for assessment because misconceptions between
partners can be clearly pinpointed. For instance, un-
der the topic of sexual interaction, members of the
couple are asked to respond to a variety of statements,
indicating their levels of satisfaction with the issue
involved. The range is from 5, which means “very
satisfied,” to 1, which means “very dissatisfied.”
One statement concerns “the length of our foreplay.”
If one partner is very satisfied and the other very
dissatisfied, this is clearly an area that needs to
be addressed.
The second major type of family problem in-
volves relationships between parents and children,
including parents’ difficulties controlling their chil-
dren and, especially as children reach adolescence,
communication problems.
There are many perspectives on child manage-
ment and parent-child communication techniques.
Two major approaches are the application of learn-
ing theory and Parent Effectiveness Training (PET),
developed by Thomas Gordon (1970). Practitioners
can help parents improve their control of children
by assessing the individual family situations and
teaching parents some basic behavior modification
techniques. Behavior modification involves the ap-
plication of learning theory principles to real-life
situations. Practitioners can also teach the use of
PET techniques. (The application of learning theory
principles to positive parenting was discussed in
Chapter 4, and PET was described in Chapter 8.)
Personal problems of individual family members
make up the third category of problems typically
experienced by families.
For example, John and Tara Altman brought
their 12-year-old-son, Terrell, into treatment because
for two years he had shown decreasing interest in
doing his schoolwork. His grades also slowly fell
from a B average to one D (in physical education)
and the rest Fs. The school system was considering
recommending that Terrell repeat the seventh grade.
John and Tara asked the social worker to “inspire”
Terrell to become refocused on his schoolwork. The
social worker asked Terrell why his grades had slid.
He replied that his mom and dad used to help him
with his schoolwork, but they had stopped showing
much interest in him. In fact, it seemed that his par-
ents had stopped talking to one another in the past
two and a half years.
At this point, the social worker decided to meet at
the next session with just John and Tara to explore
what was happening between them. At that session,
Tara revealed she had discovered two and a half
years earlier that John had had a brief affair with
one of her best friends shortly after they were mar-
ried, and she was unable to forgive him. At first, she
was furious with John, but now she had become so
depressed that she was on Prozac. She had given up
talking to John, and they had not been intimate since
her discovery. John acknowledged that he had had
the affair, and said he was trying to do everything
in his power to restore their former relationship.
John added that he had thrown himself into his
work as an electrician in order to escape his wife’s
wrath. He was also concerned that Tara was drinking
too much. Tara said alcohol helped her escape the
pain of knowing that John had had an affair. And
she was seriously thinking about divorcing John
once Terrell graduated from high school.
The social worker helped John and Tara see that
Terrell’s lack of interest in school was related to his
parents’ showing little interest in him; it was also his
way of adapting to the animosity between John and
Tara. The social worker helped Tara see that she
needed to either divorce John now or let go of focus-
ing on the pain she felt about the affair. After con-
siderable reflection, Tara said she wanted to find a
way to let go. The social worker helped her learn to
tell herself “Stop” whenever she began to think
about the affair, and to then think instead of positive
attributes about John and her family. This process of
learning to let go took Tara about three months to
fully implement.
During this period, both Tara and John focused
much more of their attention, in positive ways, on
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rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or
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Terrell. He began refocusing on his schoolwork, his
grades began to improve, and he also became more
contented.
The Altman family provides a good illustration of a
family-owned problem.All three familymembers were
hurting emotionally. Terrell was the identified client,
but all three family members needed to make changes
in order for the family to function more effectively.
The fourth category of problems frequently found
in families includes problems caused by factors
outside the family. These problems may include
inadequate income, unemployment, poor housing,
inadequate access to means of transportation and
places for recreation, and lack of job opportunities.
Also included in the multitude of potential problems
are poor health, inadequate schools, and dangerous
neighborhoods.
To begin addressing these problems, social workers
need effective brokering skills. That is, they need to
know what services are available, and how to make a
connection between families in need and these services.
Many times, appropriate services will be unavail-
able or nonexistent. Social workers will need to advo-
cate, support, or even help to develop appropriate
resources for their clients. Services that do not exist
will need to be developed. Unresponsive agency ad-
ministrations will need to be confronted. Legal assis-
tance may be needed. There are no easy solutions to
solving such nationwide problems as poverty or poor
health care. This is an ongoing process, and political
involvement may be necessary. Such environmental
stresses pose serious problems for families, and social
work practitioners cannot ignore them.
Social Work
with Organizations
As defined in Chapter 1, organizations are “(1) social
entities that (2) are goal-directed, (3) are designed as
deliberately structured and coordinated activity sys-
tems, and (4) are linked to the external environment”
(Daft, 2007, p. 10). Social entities involve groups of
people, all having their own strengths, needs, ideas,
and quirks. Organizations are goal-directed in that
they exist to accomplish some purpose or meet
some need. As an activity system, an organization is
made up of a coordinated series of units accomplish-
ing different tasks yet working together to achieve
some common end. Finally, organizations are in con-
stant interaction with other people, decision makers,
agencies, neighborhoods, and communities in the
external social environment as they strive to achieve
goals.
It is imperative that social workers have an exten-
sive knowledge of organizations. As Chapter 1 indi-
cates, working with organizations is one of the
systems in which social workers are expected to have
expertise. Highlight 12.12 expands on the importance
of social workers’ being skilled in understanding and
analyzing organizations. Several theories of organiza-
tional behavior are presented in this section. These
different theories provide a variety of perspectives
for viewing and analyzing organizations.
The Autocratic Model
The autocratic model has been in existence for thou-
sands of years. During the Industrial Revolution, it
was the predominent model for how an organization
should function. This model depends on power. Those
who are in power act autocratically. The message to
employees is, “You do this—or else”; an employee
who does not follow orders is penalized, often severely.
Anautocraticmodel uses one-way communication—
from the top to the workers. Management believes
that it knows what is best. The employee’s obliga-
tion is to follow orders. Employees have to be per-
suaded, directed, and pushed into performance, and
this is management’s task. Management does the
thinking, and the workers obey the directives. Under
autocratic conditions, the workers’ role is obedience to
management.
The autocratic model does work in some settings.
Most military organizations throughout the world
are formulated on this model. The model was also
used successfully during the Industrial Revolution,
for example, in building great railroad systems and
in operating giant steel mills.
The autocratic model has a number of disadvan-
tages. Workers are often in the best position to iden-
tify shortcomings in the structure and technology of
the organizational system, but one-way communica-
tion prevents feedback to management. The model
also fails to generate much of a commitment among
the workers to accomplish organizational goals. Fi-
nally, the model fails to motivate workers to put forth
an effort to further develop their skills (skills that
often would be highly beneficial to the employer).
The Custodial Model
Many decades ago, when the autocratic model was
the predominant model of organizational behavior,
some progressive managers began to study their
Sociological Aspects of Young and Middle Adulthood 565
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